This first volume in our series on ‘Internal Displacement in the Context of Organised Criminal Violence’ looks at this pressing issue in Central America. The author argues that labelling these situations as ‘criminal’ should not distract us from the similarities, as well as differences, with the dynamics of violence and displacement during armed conflicts and points to attendant implications for protecting and assisting the internally displaced in this context.

The initial five papers in this series draw on research by experts at the Internal Displacement Research Programme of the Refugee Law Initiative (RLI), working collaboratively with the UN Special Rapporteur on the Human Rights of Internally Displaced Persons in relation to her 2025 Call for Inputs on this theme.

This short piece looks at the protracted displacement of Azerbaijanis from the Nagorno-Karabakh region — from their displacement in the first Karabakh War (1988-1994) to Azerbaijan's recapturing of IDP homelands in the Second Karabakh War (2020) to the ambitious 'Great Return' program recently undertaken by the Azerbaijani government. While acknowledging the government's strong commitment to post-conflict reconstruction, ensuring economic protections for IDPs, and supporting IDP return, the article highlights the formidable challenges that have slowed progress. The author makes specific recommendations for accelerating IDP return, including closer involvement of IDPs in the rebuilding process, granting IDPs more autonomy in home and community development, prioritizing skills training and sustainable livelihood development, and doing more to attract foreign direct investment to the region.

This short piece discusses an often-overlooked population, the Muslims of Ukraine, most of whom have historically lived in Crimea and the Donbas regions of the country. In 2014, the annexation of Crimea and the conflict in Eastern Ukraine forced the internal displacement of thousands of Muslims. The full-scale invasion in 2022 exacerbated this displacement, with many fleeing for a second time. These adverse events not only reshaped the composition of Muslims in Ukraine but also led to the closure, destruction and damage of numerous Islamic religious and cultural centres, significantly disrupting religious practices, culture and community life. The article highlights how internal displacement has reshaped Ukraine’s Muslim map – and the challenges and resilience of this community – as Ukrainian Muslims endeavor to preserve their faith and identity amidst the ongoing conflict.

This article discusses the complexities of return for internally displaced Iraqi Gypsies and Bedouin, exacerbated by the 2022 deactivation of the humanitarian response systems by the UN. Highlighting the causes and consequences of displacement for these groups, their omission from humanitarian support, and the long-standing discriminatory attitudes that continue to impact their position in society, the paper calls attention to the lack of sustainable reintegration pathways for Iraqi Gypsy and Bedouin returnees. A major contributing factor is the lack of direct consultation with affected Gypsy and Bedouin communities regarding their reintegration priorities and needs. This must be remedied.

This short piece marking the International Day of Education (January 24) calls attention to internally displaced children worldwide, who are frequently denied their fundamental right to an education. With essential input from the International Data Alliance for Children on the Move (IDAC), the article looks at how and why so many IDP children are unable to access schooling. It also highlights the severe repercussions on child development, health and long-term well-being. Drawing on examples from around the world and insights from existing data on gaps and good practices, the authors highlight steps that must be taken to ensure the right of IDP children to go to school.

This paper explores how the erosion of traditional cultural norms and coping mechanisms— stemming from prolonged wars, conflicts, and their enduring psychosocial and economic consequences— has heightened the vulnerabilities faced by Internally Displaced Persons in Afghanistan. It further explores how a lack of institutional support worsens these challenges, ultimately forcing IDPs to adopt harmful survival strategies, including child labour, child marriage, organ sales, and the exchange of children to settle debts. By employing positionality as a methodological framework, the paper highlights the institutional and lived realities of displacement, providing a nuanced understanding of how weakened and eroded cultural practices and resilience strategies impact IDPs’ well-being and capacity to cope.

This short article examines how multiple forced displacements over the past two hundred fifty years shaped Crimean Tatar identities, collective memories and sense of belonging. Tracing the events and impacts of displacements instigated by the Russian Empire in the late 18th Century, by the Soviet Union in 1944, and by Russia in 2014, the author describes how Crimean Tatar communities currently displaced within and outside of Ukraine have drawn on shared recollections of past displacements and subsequent repatriations to understand the present. The Crimean Tatar ‘grand narrative’ of prolonged suffering and displacement at the hands of Russia, which includes an idealized and mythologized sense of ‘homeland’, serves as an essential strategy for coping with loss and preserving cultural identity in the face of assimilation pressures.

This short piece by Vanuatu’s Head of Delegation for COP 29 explains why the forthcoming International Court of Justice’s Advisory Opinion on State responsibility and climate change must address States’ obligations regarding climate mobility. Delivered originally as a speech on November 14th in Baku at the COP 29 Pacific Youth “Rising Tides, Rising Voices” event, the piece highlights the potential of the International Court of Justice’s Advisory Opinion to open a needed pathway for clarifying and advancing international law on climate mobility – including both internal and cross-border displacement. The petition, brought by Vanuatu, was approved by the UN General Assembly in 2023. Oral hearings begin on December 2, 2024.