Introduction
The Sahel has witnessed an increase in forced displacement, with serious consequences for the population’s living conditions. This has been compounded by other ongoing crises, which have led to new gender dynamics that are detrimental to women in a region where the gender equality index is already the lowest in the world. This article aims to highlight the particular challenges women face in this context, given their vulnerability and their key role within their communities. By examining how forced displacement specifically affects women and girls, we invite reflection on sustainable solutions and provide practical and policy recommendations for public authorities and NGOs working with affected communities.
The number of internally displaced persons (IDPs) in the countries of the Sahel region has increased dramatically over the past five years. According to the Secretary-General of the United Nations (UN), the total number of IDPs in the Sahel (Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, Mauritania and Niger) will reach almost five million by 2024 (AFP, 2023). While the origins of this crisis are difficult to trace, it is a complex situation involving several interrelated factors. These include growing competition for control of resources, climatic upheaval, high levels of poverty, inter-communal tensions, a lack of state presence, and violence provoked by organised crime networks and non-state armed groups (IOM, 2023).
In this context of fragility, characterised by displacement as the sole means of survival, women and girls are undoubtedly the first victims, due to the numerous challenges they face daily as a result of their vulnerability and the pivotal role they play within their communities. While forced displacement creates numerous vulnerabilities by depriving affected communities of essential economic and social resources, it also exposes women, who already face multiple forms of hardship and discrimination, to even greater human rights risks.
Internally displaced women in a region where gender inequality surpasses all other regions
In the Sahel, as in most sub-Saharan societies, the patrilineal structure is the primary means of organising social relations and understanding the obstacles faced by women and girls. The increase in forced displacement in societies already fractured by conflict and marked by glaring gender inequalities exacerbates pre-existing forms of discrimination and violence against women and girls. In such circumstances, where social norms entrench gender inequality and institutions are fragile, the risk of gender-based violence increases due to a lack of access to educational structures, health facilities, justice, social protection, and relational networks (IDMC, 2023b). Forced displacement in the Sahel region contributes to numerous adverse effects on the living conditions of those affected as well as the flagrant violations of their fundamental human rights, in particular, the right to life, the right to health, the right to food and the right to education.
Since 2016, Burkina Faso has been afflicted by a spiral of violence caused by repeated attacks by unidentified armed groups (GANI), forcing hundreds of thousands of families to relocate both within and outside the country. The most recent statistics published by the Conseil National d’Urgence et de Réhabilitation (CONASUR) on 31 March 2023 indicate over two million individuals have been forcibly displaced within Burkina Faso (MSF, 2023). Of these, some 60,556 are women. UNHCR, the United Nations refugee agency, reports that in the town of Dori, where many IDPs have taken refuge following attacks on their villages, women are in a precarious situation. This is due to the fact that women are more vulnerable to forced displacement as a result of their domestic activities and responsibilities. The performance of domestic tasks, in particular those requiring the use of natural resources, such as water supply and firewood collection, has become considerably more hazardous.
In Niger, which hosted approximately 377,000 IDPs in 2023 (IDMC, 2023c), the crisis has reinforced traditional practices and norms that are highly unfavourable to women, such as early marriage and polygamy. The displacement caused by the crisis has a disproportionate impact on women and girls, who traditionally occupy water fetching roles and who face increased risks of gender-based violence, including sexual violence. For example, in Ayorou, a village in the Tillabéry region, women report that the increasing distance from water sources has negatively impacted their health as supplies dwindle. These women are forced to fend for themselves as their fathers, husbands, and sons are either imprisoned or missing. They face numerous challenges, including finding sufficient food, accessing healthcare and education, finding employment, and rebuilding and resettling. The risks faced by women and girls in this respect can be exacerbated by intersecting vulnerabilities, potentially worsening the conditions of women living in poverty, those with disabilities, and older women and girls.
In Nigeria, which currently has more than two million internally displaced persons, women are facing the risks and consequences of the crisis, particularly in Borno State in the north-east of the country (International Crisis Group, 2022). In a report entitled Advancing a rights-based approach to climate change resilience and migration in the Sahel, the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) reports that the lack of access to sexual and reproductive health and rights has led to life-threatening problems for women and girls. The challenges faced by women during forced migration have reportedly sometimes led to unsafe terminations of pregnancies, with serious dangers to women’s health, or to the abandonment of newborn babies. In the field of health, internally displaced women interviewed by the OHCHR in Nigeria revealed the psychosocial distress they face when they are forced to move to escape violence, the loss of their homes, and the loss of private and family life (HCHR, 2022).
Access to education can also become more difficult for displaced families. Emergency conditions during conflicts and disasters, as well as existing legal and practical obstacles, can be a further barrier to access to school for children, especially young girls. In Cameroon, for example, the conflict between the state and secessionist groups in the English-speaking region has displaced a number of people, estimated to number 680,000 by 2023. Although the primary cause of displacement is a lack of security, the figures likely include a significant number of “education-related displacements”. (World Bank, 2023). While security concerns drive most displacement, many families move specifically seeking “educational refuge” (World Bank, 2023). The targeting of schools by non-state armed groups, compounded by self-defence groups and rising crime, has created a unique crisis. Families leave the northwest and southwest regions searching for education after schools close under the “No School” policy. Due to the precarious living conditions and the closure of schools, IDPs engage in survival sex. Prostitution amongst displaced women and girls seems to be increasing; while reported in all affected regions, sources indicate that this is particularly predominant in Douala (World Bank, 2023).
In Burkina Faso, a study by the Global Coalition to Protect Education from Attack revealed that some children reported being separated from their families in the chaos of flight and left to fend for themselves, which disrupted their education and exposed them to greater risks of abuse. This context is also said to have contributed to an increase in the incidence of early marriage among girls (GCPEA, 2023). In general, the closure of schools due to conflict is problematic for girls who are already disadvantaged, particularly those who live in refugee camps or have been displaced. Current statistics on the school attendance of displaced girls and boys in certain Sahelian countries illustrate this situation: in Mali, 43% of girls attend school versus 47% of boys; in Nigeria, 81% of girls attend school compared with 93%; and in Cameroon, 78% of girls attend versus 83% of boys (IDMC, 2023a).
The preceding analysis reveals that the forced displacement of women in Sahelian countries, such as Cameroon, Niger, Nigeria and Burkina Faso, compromises their enjoyment of a number of human rights. These include the right to education, the right to health and the right to food. The long-standing structures of inequality and discrimination in the region further exacerbate the risks. Consequently, there is an urgent need to consider sustainable solutions that can assist affected communities, and women in particular, in overcoming these challenges more effectively.
What policies are necessary to ensure appropriate responses?
The development and implementation of policies form the basis of effective solutions to internal displacement and reduce future risks, especially for women. In this regard, the Kampala Convention: African Union Convention for the Protection and Assistance of Internally Displaced Persons in Africa was adopted on 23 October 2009 and entered into force on 6 December 2012. The Convention establishes standards for the protection of the rights and well-being of people displaced by conflict, violence, disasters and human rights violations. It also provides a common understanding of the problem and makes recommendations to support countries in applying the lessons learned from other experiences. In addition, it calls for responses tailored to each displacement situation and encourages greater coordination by clearly defining the roles and responsibilities of national and international stakeholders. The Convention is based on the Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement, which hold that governments bear the primary responsibility for the protection and assistance of internally displaced persons. It is therefore incumbent upon them to incorporate the Convention’s provisions into their national legislation and policies.
Despite the fact that States of the Sahel region adopted the Convention in 2009, which was the world’s first binding text on the protection of and assistance to internally displaced persons, it has yet to be implemented. Fifteen years on, the provisions of this Convention have not yet been translated into practice in the national laws and public policies of the Sahel region. This is despite the unprecedented scale of internal displacement in the region in recent years and the advent of laws on forced migration and repatriation in several Sahelian countries. In 2015, Mali developed a national strategy for the management of internally displaced persons and returnees. In 2018, the process of drawing up a national legislative framework on internal displacement commenced. In 2018, Niger and Nigeria passed laws on the protection of and assistance to internally displaced persons. Burkina Faso drew up a national disaster preparedness and response plan. In 2017, Chad adopted a criminal code criminalising arbitrary displacement. The few existing policies and programmes are aimed at internal displacement in general (Diallo, 2015). None of the countries in the Sahel region currently has specific legislation addressing the vulnerabilities of women on the move let alone on preventing and combating gender-based violence in the context of internal displacement. However, several countries have been attempting to make efforts in this direction in recent years.
Additional, stronger laws and regulations are required to protect displaced women and girls in the Sahel. Mapping gender dynamics within internal displacement (currently missing in national surveys) would enable informed policy and funding decisions.
Responses to the specific needs of women and girls who are forced to migrate must be tailored to their circumstances and the risks they face. In Africa and the Sahel in particular, there is a pressing need for more effective responses at the sub-regional and national levels. The countries concerned must demonstrate a greater commitment to gender equality and the prevention of sexual and gender-based violence. Furthermore, the response to internal displacement must be anchored in human rights. As a first step to addressing these issues, the following steps are urgently needed.
Empower displaced women as agents of change in durable solutions
Despite the numerous traumas faced by women in forced displacement, including exploitation and violence, women who are displaced exhibit extraordinary strength and resilience as they work to rebuild their lives. Engagement and guidance from all parties are crucial for fostering a secure and thriving future. In response to this situation, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) is collaborating with its partners to assist the government of Burkina Faso in identifying socio-economic opportunities for displaced women, focusing on enhancing their resilience and aiding them in overcoming their challenges. In this scenario, the partnership between the UNHCR and the Djam Weli women’s cooperative has enabled the inclusion of fifteen refugee women and eighteen internally displaced women, who are currently receiving training in diverse trades intending to engage in collective income-generating activities. A thorough community dynamic has progressively developed since that time. This strategy effectively meets the empowerment requirements of internally displaced women while fostering coexistence through the utilization of local skills. This initiative serves as a clear example of the significant influence that equipping and educating internally displaced women can exert on their circumstances. With access to socio-economic opportunities and newly-acquired skills, women take charge of their own development, creating income and enhancing their resilience during challenging times.
Internally displaced women are therefore well placed to identify the conditions necessary for a secure and dignified life. Investment in their projects and activities should be encouraged at regional, national and local levels. It is imperative to direct attention to women, and in particular to their perspectives, capacities and relational networks, which are of critical importance in the search for solutions to the myriad concerns caused by displacement.
Promote gender-responsive approaches to data collection to advance inclusive and tailored programming
In recent years, there has been a growing body of academic work and institutional reports on the issue of forced displacement. However, few have sought to study and understand the particular challenges faced by women in this context (IDMC, 2023b). If data on women in the context of forced displacement is scarce throughout the world, it is even scarcer in the Sahel region. The data available is not presented by gender let alone by the type of vulnerability. This paucity of data is indicative of a lack of awareness of the problem of internally displaced women. However, for years, the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR, 2023) and the Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC, 2023b) have been advocating for an increase in the number of reflections and other analyses on the gender dimensions of forced displacement to address the gap in data in this area.
A gender analysis of forced migration is of the utmost importance for the design and implementation of programmes aimed at managing forced displacement in a way that recognises and challenges gender inequalities and power relations and transforms gender roles, norms and stereotypes. In order for donors, project implementers and researchers to effectively mitigate the impacts of displacement on women, a gender approach is essential to both academic and institutional analyses of the issue of forced displacement. The collection of data on the gendered aspects of displacement will undoubtedly inform the formulation of public policies and the planning of inclusive projects that are sensitive to the particular challenges and needs of women.
Centring women in the development of solutions
The forced displacements that have multiplied in recent years in the Sahel have had a devastating impact on the living conditions of women and girls. Gender inequalities, which were already prevalent, have become even more pronounced, and threats to women’s rights to education, health and food, among others, have increased. In order to protect women and girls and enable their resilience in the face of the challenges of forced displacement, it is essential to adopt a gender-based approach to responses and to genuinely involve women in the search for sustainable solutions. While in humanitarian contexts, the question that most often arises in relation to women is that of protection, the current situation in the Sahel is a reminder that this obvious humanitarian need must not overshadow the question of participation and inclusion. The fragility and vulnerability of women in the Sahel is often accompanied by an unsuspected strength. In the conflict-affected regions of Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chad, Mali, Niger and Nigeria, women play a pivotal role in restoring peace and security to their communities on a daily basis. In particular, internally displaced women, who are especially vulnerable to exploitation and abuse, demonstrate their resilience in the face of adversity through their various activities and relational networks. This resilience attests to the importance of placing women at the centre of the fight against gender inequality in the context of forced displacement.
Habmo Birwe (MSc, MSc) is a migration researcher specializing in human mobility in fragile contexts, with experience spanning philanthropic initiatives in Southeast Asia, digital transformation assessments in the Caribbean and Pacific, and analytical work promoting social inclusion in the Sahel and Lake Chad regions as a Research Fellow at the World Bank.
KEYWORDS: Women, Displacement, Gendered Impacts, Policy Responses, Sahel, Africa
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